Plutarch, a renowned Greek biographer and essayist, left an indelible mark on philosophy through his extensive collection of writings known as Moralia. This compilation, consisting of essays and dialogues, delves deeply into various aspects of human nature, ethics, and societal conduct.
On the Education of Children (Περὶ παίδων ἀγωγῆς - De liberis educandis)
"The very spring and root of honesty and virtue lie in good education."
Plutarch emphasizes the crucial role of education in shaping a child's character and intellect. He argues that early education is foundational for instilling virtues and preparing individuals to live a moral life. Additionally, the author underscores the significance of a good education in nurturing virtues such as honesty and integrity. He also believes that education should commence early in a child's life and should focus not only on intellectual development but also on moral upbringing.
How to Tell a Flatterer from a Friend (Πῶς ἄν τις διακρίνοιε τὸν κόλακα τοῦ φίλου - Quomodo adulator ab amico internoscatur)
"The flatterer is a base imitator who knows neither how to lead nor to follow."
In this work, the writer examines the differences between true friends and flatterers. He highlights the importance of genuine relationships built on honesty and mutual respect. Moreover, he distinguishes between sincere friends, who offer honest feedback, and flatterers, who seek to manipulate through insincere praise. According to the philosopher, true friendship is characterized by mutual respect and a willingness to provide constructive criticism.
How to Profit by One's Enemies (Πῶς ἄν τις ὑπ᾿ ἐχθρῶν ὠφελοῖτο - De capienda ex inimicis utilitate)
"It is more becoming in a wise man to decline from his way than to incline with his enemy."
Plutarch argues that valuable lessons can be learned from one's enemies, believing that adversaries provide opportunities for self-improvement and resilience. He views enemies as sources of critical feedback and challenges that foster personal growth. By facing opposition, individuals can strengthen their virtues and enhance their resilience.
On Virtue and Vice (Περὶ ἀρετῆς καὶ κακίας - De virtute et vitio)
"Virtue consists more in doing good than in receiving."
In this essay, the author explores the nature of virtue and vice, emphasizing the importance of pursuing virtue for a fulfilling life. Plutarch highlights that true virtue involves active goodness and benefiting others, rather than merely receiving good things. Furthermore, he stresses that virtuous actions are essential for achieving personal fulfillment and contributing to the well-being of society.
On the Multitude of Friends (Περὶ πολυφιλίας - De amicorum multitudine)
"A friend is one who warns you of dangers, who congratulates you on success."
The philosopher discusses the qualities of true friendship and the futility of seeking popularity through numerous superficial relationships. He values the depth of true friendship over the quantity of acquaintances. Furthermore, he believes that genuine friends are those who support, advise, and celebrate with you, rather than those who merely provide superficial companionship.
On Fortune (Περὶ τύχης - De fortuna)
"Fortune is not within our power; but behavior is."
The philosopher contemplates the role of fortune in human life, arguing that while fortune influences events, one's character and virtues determine their response to it. He acknowledges the impact of fortune on human affairs but asserts that individuals have control over their reactions and behaviors. Moreover, he emphasizes the importance of maintaining virtue and integrity regardless of external circumstances.
Sayings of Kings and Commanders (Βασιλέων ἀποφθέγματα καὶ στρατηγῶν - Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata)
"The greatest wealth is to live content with little."
This work collects memorable sayings of notable leaders, illustrating the wisdom and character of great rulers. Plutarch compiles these sayings to provide moral lessons and insights into leadership. Moreover, the quotes underscore the value of contentment and simplicity, highlighting that true wealth lies in a contented and virtuous life.
Whether Virtue Can Be Taught (Εἰ διδακτὸν ἡ ἀρετή - An virtus doceri possit)
"By nature, we are prone to follow vice; virtue is taught."
The author debates whether virtue is innate or can be taught, ultimately affirming that education and environment play crucial roles in cultivating virtue. He argues that while humans have a natural inclination towards vice, virtue can be developed through proper education and guidance. This perspective underscores the transformative power of education in shaping moral character.
On Moral Virtue (Περὶ ἠθικῆς ἀρετῆς - De virtute morali)
"Moral virtue is the result of habit."
In this essay, the writer elaborates on the nature of moral virtues and their significance in leading a good life. He highlights that moral virtues are developed through consistent practice and habituation. This perspective reflects his belief in the importance of forming good habits to cultivate a virtuous character.
On Controlling Anger (Περὶ ἀοργησίας - De cohibenda ira)
"The continuance and frequent fits of anger produce an evil habit in the soul."
Plutarch addresses the challenges of managing anger and the importance of maintaining self-control for personal and social harmony. He warns against the destructive nature of anger and advocates for self-control. According to the philosopher, uncontrolled anger can lead to harmful habits and disrupt both personal and social harmony.
On Brotherly Love (Περὶ φιλαδελφίας - De fraterno amore)
"Brotherly love is the greatest bond in nature."
This essay explores the importance of brotherly love and the bonds of kinship in fostering social harmony and mutual support. The philosopher emphasizes the significance of familial bonds and the mutual support they provide. He believes that brotherly love is essential for maintaining social harmony and fostering strong communities.
On Tranquility of Mind (Περὶ εὐθυμίας - De tranquillitate animi)
"It is not he who has too little, but he who craves more, that is poor."
Plutarch discusses the importance of maintaining inner peace and tranquility for a balanced and fulfilling life. He stresses that true tranquility comes from contentment and the absence of excessive desires. Moreover, he believes that inner peace is achieved by cultivating a mindset of gratitude and satisfaction with what one has.
On the Love of Offspring (Περὶ τῆς εἰς τὰ ἔγγονα φιλοστοργίας - De amore prolis)
"The love of offspring is a natural instinct bestowed by nature."
This work explores the natural affection parents have for their children and the responsibilities that come with it. The author acknowledges the innate bond between parents and their children and emphasizes the importance of this relationship. He believes that parental love is fundamental to nurturing and guiding the next generation.
Whether the Affections of the Soul or Those of the Body are Worse (Περὶ τοῦ πότερον τὰ ψυχῆς ἢ τὰ σώματος πάθη χείρονα - Animine an corporis affectiones sint peiores)
"The diseases of the soul are more dangerous and more numerous than those of the body."
The philosopher debates whether the ailments of the soul or the body are more detrimental, ultimately highlighting the greater impact of moral and emotional afflictions. He emphasizes the severity of emotional and moral issues compared to physical ones. Moreover, he believes that while physical ailments are significant, the afflictions of the soul—such as anger, jealousy, and hatred—pose a greater threat to an individual's overall well-being and moral integrity.
On the Love of Wealth (Περὶ φιλοπλουτίας - De cupiditate divitiarum)
"The love of wealth is the root of all evil."
In this essay, Plutarch critiques the excessive love of wealth and its corrupting influence on human behavior and society. He warns against the dangers of avarice, suggesting that the pursuit of wealth often leads to moral decay and social strife. Moreover, he advocates for a balanced approach to material possessions, where wealth is not sought for its own sake but used to promote virtuous living and social good.
On Envy and Hatred (Περὶ φθόνου καὶ μίσους - De invidia et odio)
"Envy is the most wretched and foolish of all the passions."
The writer explores the destructive nature of envy and hatred, emphasizing the importance of overcoming these emotions for personal and communal harmony. He identifies envy and hatred as deeply harmful emotions that erode personal happiness and social relationships. By recognizing and combating these feelings, individuals can achieve greater peace and contribute to a more harmonious society.
On Curiosity (Περὶ πολυπραγμοσύνης - De curiositate)
"Curiosity often leads to trouble and distraction."
In this essay, the philsopher discusses the pitfalls of excessive curiosity, suggesting that it can lead to unnecessary stress and distraction from important matters. He warns against the dangers of being overly inquisitive about others' affairs, as excessive curiosity can divert attention from one's responsibilities and lead to unnecessary complications. Instead, Plutarch advocates for a focus on self-improvement and meaningful pursuits.
On Faulty Shame (Περὶ δυσωπίας - De vitioso pudore)
"Faulty shame prevents one from seeking help and admitting mistakes."
The author examines the concept of shame, distinguishing between healthy shame that promotes moral behavior and faulty shame that hinders personal growth. He highlights the importance of distinguishing between constructive and destructive forms of shame. While healthy shame can guide ethical behavior, faulty shame can prevent individuals from acknowledging their shortcomings and seeking improvement, thus impeding personal development.
That a Philosopher Ought to Converse Especially with Men in Power (Περὶ τοῦ ὅτι μάλιστα τοὶς ἡγεμόσιν δεῖ τὸν φιλόσοφον διαλέγεσθαι - Maxime cum principibus philosopho esse disserendum)
"It is the duty of a philosopher to converse with those in power and guide them with wisdom."
The writer argues that philosophers have a crucial role in advising and influencing leaders to ensure just and wise governance. He believes that they, with their wisdom and ethical insights, should engage with rulers to promote virtuous and effective leadership. Moreover, this interaction ensures that political power is exercised with moral considerations and justice.
Whether Land or Sea Animals Are Cleverer (Πότερα τῶν ζῴων φρονιμώτερα τὰ χερσαία ἢ τὰ ἔνυδρα - De sollertia animalium)
"Both land and sea creatures show great ingenuity and adaptability."
Plutarch delves into the intelligence of land and sea animals, noting their exceptional cleverness within their respective habitats. He emphasizes the adaptability and intelligence of various species, recognizing the unique abilities of both terrestrial and marine creatures. This perspective underscores the diverse expressions of intelligence found throughout the natural world.
That Brute Animals Make Use of Reason (Περὶ τοῦ τὰ ἄλογα λόγῳ χρῆσθαι - Bruta animalia ratione uti)
"Animals, though lacking human speech, demonstrate reasoning and emotions."
The author argues that animals possess a form of rationality and should be treated with consideration and respect. He advocates for a more respectful and ethical treatment of animals, recognizing their capacity for rationality and emotional experience. This perspective calls for humane behavior towards all living creatures.
On Eating Meat (Περὶ σαρκοφαγίας - De esu carnium)
"For my part, I wonder what sort of feeling, mind, or reason they had, who first set about eating the flesh of dead animals."
The philosopher questions the ethics of consuming meat, considering the moral implications and the impact on one's character. He challenges the practice of meat consumption from a moral standpoint, questioning its necessity and ethical implications. Besides, the writer suggests that abstaining from meat could lead to a more compassionate and virtuous life.
On the Generation of the Soul in the Timaeus (Περὶ τῆς ἐν Τιμαίῳ ψυχογονίας - De animae procreatione in Timaeo)
"The soul, being divine and immortal, is the source of life and reason."
In this work, Plutarch analyzes Plato's dialogue Timaeus, exploring the creation and nature of the soul. He delves into the philosophical concepts presented in Timaeus, contemplating the origins and characteristics of the soul. Moreover, the author emphasizes the soul's divine nature and its role in providing life and rationality to beings.
Summary of the Generation of the Soul in the Timaeus (Ἐπιτομή τοῦ Περὶ τῆς ἐν τῷ Τιμαίῳ ψυχογονίας - Compendium libri de animae procreatione in Timaeo)
"The creation of the soul is a divine act, reflecting the harmony and order of the universe."
This work provides a concise summary of Plutarch's interpretation of the soul's creation as described in Plato's Timaeus. He offers a succinct overview of the soul's divine origins and its connection to the greater cosmos. Furthermore, the philosopher emphasizes the harmonious and orderly nature of the soul's creation, aligning with the broader philosophical themes of Plato's work.
Conclusion
Plutarch’s Moralia offers a timeless guide to ethical living, emphasizing the cultivation of virtue, the importance of education, and the value of genuine friendships. His works delve into managing emotions, dealing with adversity, and achieving inner peace, providing practical wisdom and profound insights into the human condition.
Through consistent practice and habituation, virtues are cultivated, shaping one’s character over time. Education is highlighted as crucial in forming moral and intellectual virtues from a young age. Furthermore, the distinction between true friends and flatterers underscores the importance of sincerity in relationships.
The philosopher also addresses various societal and ethical issues, advocating for a balanced approach to life. His philosophy remains enduringly relevant, offering valuable guidance for navigating the complexities of human existence and achieving personal and social well-being. By engaging with Plutarch's Moralia, individuals can gain timeless wisdom for leading a virtuous and fulfilling life.
References
1. Plutarch, Moralia, translated by Frank C. Babbitt, Harvard University Press, 1927.
2. Plutarch, Moralia, translated by Robin Waterfield, Oxford University Press, 2005.
3. Plutarch, Plutarch’s Moralia: Volume I, translated by W.C. Helmbold, Loeb Classical Library, 1962.
4. Plutarch’s Lives: Parallel Lives (The Complete Works), translated by Bernadotte Perrin, Harvard University Press, 1914.
5. Plutarch's Moralia: An Introduction by David Konstan, Oxford University Press, 2009.
6. Fowler, H.W. (Ed.), The Moralia of Plutarch, Oxford University Press, 2015.
7. Taylor, C. C. W., Plutarch and the Moral Life, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
8. De Lacy, P., Plutarch’s Moralia (The Ancient World), Routledge, 2014.
