The Wisdom of animals in intelligence Reason and Ethics

Plutarch’s reflections on animals’ intelligence and morality reveal not only his philosophical depth but also his keen observation of the natural world, forming a cornerstone of his ethical discourse. In works such as Whether Land or Sea Animals Are Cleverer, That Brute Animals Make Use of Reason, and On Eating Meat, he examines the capacities of animals and their implications for human ethics. By exploring themes of rationality, emotional depth, and the morality of human actions toward animals, Plutarch contributes to a broader intellectual tradition that spans ancient Greek thought and resonates with later philosophical developments during the Golden Age and beyond.

In Whether Land or Sea Animals Are Cleverer, Plutarch considers the ingenuity of animals across environments, emphasizing that both terrestrial and aquatic creatures exhibit adaptability suited to their ecological niches. He underscores this through examples of their problem-solving abilities, cooperation, and foresight. For instance, he describes how birds and mammals construct homes, store food, or evade predators with remarkable precision, while sea creatures demonstrate similar adaptability in their underwater habitats. Modern ethological studies reinforce Plutarch’s observations. Crows solving multi-step puzzles, dolphins using sponges to protect their snouts while foraging, and octopuses escaping enclosures echo his claims about the universal intelligence of animals. Plutarch’s philosophical curiosity here reflects a broader ancient fascination with the natural world, reminiscent of Aristotle’s History of Animals, where the biological intricacies of various species are cataloged and analyzed, often with moral implications.

In That Brute Animals Make Use of Reason, Plutarch takes a bold step, arguing that animals are not only clever but also possess reasoning abilities and emotions. He refutes the idea that rationality is exclusive to humans, presenting compelling anecdotes to show that animals make decisions, form bonds, and experience complex emotions like grief and joy. Elephants, which Plutarch frequently praises, mourn their dead, while dogs demonstrate loyalty and affection. This view aligns with the Stoic principle of universal interconnectedness, as seen in the works of thinkers like Chrysippus, who recognized the Logos, or Rational Principle, inherent in all living beings. Similarly, Cicero’s De Natura Deorum engages with the idea of a rational order that binds all life, subtly supporting the ethical consideration of animals.

Plutarch’s ethical concerns reach their peak in On Eating Meat, where he critiques the consumption of animal flesh as a practice born of necessity but maintained through cruelty and desensitization. He challenges readers to reflect on the moral and spiritual degradation that accompanies such acts, asking what kind of person could first bring themselves to eat the flesh of a living being. For Plutarch, abstaining from meat fosters compassion, purity of mind, and alignment with nature’s harmony. This sentiment finds echoes in the philosophy of Pythagoras, who regarded vegetarianism as essential for achieving a virtuous life. The Orphic tradition, too, embraced abstinence from animal flesh, viewing it as a way to maintain spiritual integrity and honor the Divine in all living things. Moreover, the Golden Age myth, referenced by poets like Hesiod and Ovid, reinforces this notion, portraying an Era of Peace where humanity lived in Harmony with animals, free from violence and consumption of meat.

Plutarch’s critique also anticipates modern concerns about factory farming, environmental destruction, and the ethical treatment of animals. Contemporary thinkers have built upon such ideas, advocating for animal rights and vegetarianism as moral imperatives. Additionally, the environmental consequences of industrial agriculture—such as deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, and biodiversity loss—lend credence to Plutarch’s belief in the far-reaching consequences of dietary choices.

By situating Plutarch’s reflections within the broader philosophical and cultural traditions of his time, his work emerges as part of an enduring legacy of ethical inquiry. From Aristotle’s biological curiosity to the Orphic ideals of harmony and the Stoic embrace of universal reason, Plutarch’s writings bridge ancient thought with modern ethical dilemmas. His insights challenge us to recognize the wisdom and moral significance of animals, urging humanity to act with compassion and responsibility. In doing so, he offers a timeless call to reconsider our place in the natural order and to strive for a more virtuous coexistence with all living beings.

Wisdom’s triumph over the darkness of evil

Introduction

Throughout history, humanity has grappled with the pervasive presence of evil. How should the wise respond to malice and wrongdoing? Notably, philosophers and spiritual figures such as Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Plutarch, Buddha, and Jesus have provided profound guidance. Remarkably, their teachings converge on a universal principle: the path to overcoming evil lies in cultivating inner strength, compassion, and moral resilience.

Stoic Philosophy: Inner mastery over external events

To begin with, the Stoics offer invaluable insights on responding to adversity. For Seneca, evil is an external force, powerless to disturb the tranquility of a virtuous mind. As he famously asserted, “A good man cannot be harmed either in life or death.” Likewise, Marcus Aurelius, in his meditative reflections, encouraged understanding rather than resentment, arguing that malice arises from ignorance. In his words, “It is not what happens to you but how you react that matters.” Consequently, the Stoic sage rises above malice by focusing on self-mastery and rational judgment.

Plutarch’s pragmatic wisdom: reform over revenge

Moving from the Stoics to Plutarch, we find a complementary perspective. Plutarch underscores the importance of practical engagement with society, advocating patience and reformative action. Instead of seeking revenge, he urged cultivating tolerance and addressing the root causes of wrongdoing. Moreover, his emphasis on educating others reflects a commitment to collective betterment. Therefore, for Plutarch, wisdom involves not only personal virtue but also a proactive effort to improve the moral fabric of society.

Buddha’s perspective: Compassion as liberation

In contrast to the Stoic and Greco-Roman views, Buddhism introduces a more introspective approach. Buddha, for instance, viewed hatred as a destructive cycle that binds both perpetrator and victim. The Dhammapada highlights this with unparalleled clarity: “Hatred is never appeased by hatred; it is appeased by love.” From this vantage point, the sage dismantles malice by cultivating compassion, recognizing that those who commit evil are themselves ensnared by suffering. Hence, the Buddhist path offers not only personal liberation but also a means to transcend cycles of harm altogether.

Christian teachings: Radical Forgiveness and Love

Similarly, Christianity brings a transformative ethos to the discourse on malice. Jesus’s exhortation to “love your enemies” and “turn the other cheek” challenges conventional notions of justice. By advocating forgiveness, Jesus presents a radical response to evil—one rooted in divine love and moral courage. Furthermore, the lives of saints like Francis of Assisi demonstrate how embracing humility and forgiveness can dismantle hostility. In essence, Christian teachings call for overcoming evil with acts of selfless love, which not only defuse hatred but also inspire moral renewal.

Shared Wisdom across traditions

Despite their differences, these traditions reveal striking commonalities. On the one hand, they advocate inner strength as the cornerstone of resistance to malice. On the other hand, they emphasize compassion, forgiveness, and reform as essential tools in addressing wrongdoing. Additionally, their teachings challenge the idea that evil can be defeated through vengeance or aggression. Instead, they highlight the transformative power of virtue as the ultimate antidote to malice.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the sages of history teach us that the battle against evil is not fought with anger or retaliation, but with wisdom, kindness, and resilience. Whether through Stoic reason, Buddhist compassion, or Christian forgiveness, they illuminate a path that transcends malice and uplifts humanity. Ultimately, their timeless lessons remind us that while evil may persist, the power of virtue endures as a beacon of hope and harmony.

References

1. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. Letters from a Stoic. Translated by Robin Campbell, Penguin Classics, 1969.

2. Aurelius, Marcus. Meditations. Translated by Gregory Hays, Modern Library, 2002.

3. Plutarch. Moralia: Volume I: The Ethics of the Stoic and the Epicurean. Harvard University Press, 2002.

4. Buddha. The Dhammapada. Translated by Eknath Easwaran, Nilgiri Press, 2007.

5. The Holy Bible: New International Version. Zondervan, 2011.

The Philosophical Insights of Plutarch in Moralia

 

Plutarch, a renowned Greek biographer and essayist, left an indelible mark on philosophy through his extensive collection of writings known as Moralia. This compilation, consisting of essays and dialogues, delves deeply into various aspects of human nature, ethics, and societal conduct. 

On the Education of Children (Περὶ παίδων ἀγωγῆς - De liberis educandis)

"The very spring and root of honesty and virtue lie in good education."

Plutarch emphasizes the crucial role of education in shaping a child's character and intellect. He argues that early education is foundational for instilling virtues and preparing individuals to live a moral life. Additionally, the author underscores the significance of a good education in nurturing virtues such as honesty and integrity. He also believes that education should commence early in a child's life and should focus not only on intellectual development but also on moral upbringing.

 

How to Tell a Flatterer from a Friend (Πῶς ἄν τις διακρίνοιε τὸν κόλακα τοῦ φίλου - Quomodo adulator ab amico internoscatur)

"The flatterer is a base imitator who knows neither how to lead nor to follow."

In this work, the writer examines the differences between true friends and flatterers. He highlights the importance of genuine relationships built on honesty and mutual respect. Moreover, he distinguishes between sincere friends, who offer honest feedback, and flatterers, who seek to manipulate through insincere praise. According to the philosopher, true friendship is characterized by mutual respect and a willingness to provide constructive criticism.

 

How to Profit by One's Enemies (Πῶς ἄν τις ὑπ᾿ ἐχθρῶν ὠφελοῖτο - De capienda ex inimicis utilitate)

"It is more becoming in a wise man to decline from his way than to incline with his enemy."

Plutarch argues that valuable lessons can be learned from one's enemies, believing that adversaries provide opportunities for self-improvement and resilience. He views enemies as sources of critical feedback and challenges that foster personal growth. By facing opposition, individuals can strengthen their virtues and enhance their resilience.

 

On Virtue and Vice (Περὶ ἀρετῆς καὶ κακίας - De virtute et vitio)

"Virtue consists more in doing good than in receiving."

In this essay, the author explores the nature of virtue and vice, emphasizing the importance of pursuing virtue for a fulfilling life. Plutarch highlights that true virtue involves active goodness and benefiting others, rather than merely receiving good things. Furthermore, he stresses that virtuous actions are essential for achieving personal fulfillment and contributing to the well-being of society.

 

On the Multitude of Friends (Περὶ πολυφιλίας - De amicorum multitudine)

"A friend is one who warns you of dangers, who congratulates you on success."

The philosopher discusses the qualities of true friendship and the futility of seeking popularity through numerous superficial relationships. He values the depth of true friendship over the quantity of acquaintances. Furthermore, he believes that genuine friends are those who support, advise, and celebrate with you, rather than those who merely provide superficial companionship.

 

On Fortune (Περὶ τύχης - De fortuna)

"Fortune is not within our power; but behavior is."

The philosopher contemplates the role of fortune in human life, arguing that while fortune influences events, one's character and virtues determine their response to it. He acknowledges the impact of fortune on human affairs but asserts that individuals have control over their reactions and behaviors. Moreover, he emphasizes the importance of maintaining virtue and integrity regardless of external circumstances.

 

Sayings of Kings and Commanders (Βασιλέων ἀποφθέγματα καὶ στρατηγῶν - Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata)

"The greatest wealth is to live content with little."

This work collects memorable sayings of notable leaders, illustrating the wisdom and character of great rulers. Plutarch compiles these sayings to provide moral lessons and insights into leadership. Moreover, the quotes underscore the value of contentment and simplicity, highlighting that true wealth lies in a contented and virtuous life.

 

Whether Virtue Can Be Taught (Εἰ διδακτὸν ἡ ἀρετή - An virtus doceri possit)

"By nature, we are prone to follow vice; virtue is taught."

The author debates whether virtue is innate or can be taught, ultimately affirming that education and environment play crucial roles in cultivating virtue. He argues that while humans have a natural inclination towards vice, virtue can be developed through proper education and guidance. This perspective underscores the transformative power of education in shaping moral character.

 

On Moral Virtue (Περὶ ἠθικῆς ἀρετῆς - De virtute morali)

 "Moral virtue is the result of habit."

In this essay, the writer elaborates on the nature of moral virtues and their significance in leading a good life. He highlights that moral virtues are developed through consistent practice and habituation. This perspective reflects his belief in the importance of forming good habits to cultivate a virtuous character.

 

On Controlling Anger (Περὶ ἀοργησίας - De cohibenda ira)

"The continuance and frequent fits of anger produce an evil habit in the soul."

Plutarch addresses the challenges of managing anger and the importance of maintaining self-control for personal and social harmony. He warns against the destructive nature of anger and advocates for self-control. According to the philosopher, uncontrolled anger can lead to harmful habits and disrupt both personal and social harmony.

 

On Brotherly Love (Περὶ φιλαδελφίας - De fraterno amore)

"Brotherly love is the greatest bond in nature."

This essay explores the importance of brotherly love and the bonds of kinship in fostering social harmony and mutual support. The philosopher emphasizes the significance of familial bonds and the mutual support they provide. He believes that brotherly love is essential for maintaining social harmony and fostering strong communities.

 

On Tranquility of Mind (Περὶ εὐθυμίας - De tranquillitate animi)

"It is not he who has too little, but he who craves more, that is poor."

Plutarch discusses the importance of maintaining inner peace and tranquility for a balanced and fulfilling life. He stresses that true tranquility comes from contentment and the absence of excessive desires. Moreover, he believes that inner peace is achieved by cultivating a mindset of gratitude and satisfaction with what one has.

 

On the Love of Offspring (Περὶ τῆς εἰς τὰ ἔγγονα φιλοστοργίας - De amore prolis)

"The love of offspring is a natural instinct bestowed by nature."

This work explores the natural affection parents have for their children and the responsibilities that come with it. The author acknowledges the innate bond between parents and their children and emphasizes the importance of this relationship. He believes that parental love is fundamental to nurturing and guiding the next generation.

 

Whether the Affections of the Soul or Those of the Body are Worse (Περὶ τοῦ πότερον τὰ ψυχῆς ἢ τὰ σώματος πάθη χείρονα - Animine an corporis affectiones sint peiores)

"The diseases of the soul are more dangerous and more numerous than those of the body."

The philosopher debates whether the ailments of the soul or the body are more detrimental, ultimately highlighting the greater impact of moral and emotional afflictions. He emphasizes the severity of emotional and moral issues compared to physical ones. Moreover, he believes that while physical ailments are significant, the afflictions of the soul—such as anger, jealousy, and hatred—pose a greater threat to an individual's overall well-being and moral integrity.

 

On the Love of Wealth (Περὶ φιλοπλουτίας - De cupiditate divitiarum)

"The love of wealth is the root of all evil."

In this essay, Plutarch critiques the excessive love of wealth and its corrupting influence on human behavior and society. He warns against the dangers of avarice, suggesting that the pursuit of wealth often leads to moral decay and social strife. Moreover, he advocates for a balanced approach to material possessions, where wealth is not sought for its own sake but used to promote virtuous living and social good.

 

On Envy and Hatred (Περὶ φθόνου καὶ μίσους - De invidia et odio)

"Envy is the most wretched and foolish of all the passions."

The writer explores the destructive nature of envy and hatred, emphasizing the importance of overcoming these emotions for personal and communal harmony. He identifies envy and hatred as deeply harmful emotions that erode personal happiness and social relationships. By recognizing and combating these feelings, individuals can achieve greater peace and contribute to a more harmonious society.

 

On Curiosity (Περὶ πολυπραγμοσύνης - De curiositate)

"Curiosity often leads to trouble and distraction."

In this essay, the philsopher discusses the pitfalls of excessive curiosity, suggesting that it can lead to unnecessary stress and distraction from important matters. He warns against the dangers of being overly inquisitive about others' affairs, as excessive curiosity can divert attention from one's responsibilities and lead to unnecessary complications. Instead, Plutarch advocates for a focus on self-improvement and meaningful pursuits.

 

On Faulty Shame (Περὶ δυσωπίας - De vitioso pudore)

"Faulty shame prevents one from seeking help and admitting mistakes."

The author examines the concept of shame, distinguishing between healthy shame that promotes moral behavior and faulty shame that hinders personal growth. He highlights the importance of distinguishing between constructive and destructive forms of shame. While healthy shame can guide ethical behavior, faulty shame can prevent individuals from acknowledging their shortcomings and seeking improvement, thus impeding personal development.

 

That a Philosopher Ought to Converse Especially with Men in Power (Περὶ τοῦ ὅτι μάλιστα τοὶς ἡγεμόσιν δεῖ τὸν φιλόσοφον διαλέγεσθαι - Maxime cum principibus philosopho esse disserendum)

"It is the duty of a philosopher to converse with those in power and guide them with wisdom."

The writer argues that philosophers have a crucial role in advising and influencing leaders to ensure just and wise governance. He believes that they, with their wisdom and ethical insights, should engage with rulers to promote virtuous and effective leadership. Moreover, this interaction ensures that political power is exercised with moral considerations and justice.

 

Whether Land or Sea Animals Are Cleverer (Πότερα τῶν ζῴων φρονιμώτερα τὰ χερσαία ἢ τὰ ἔνυδρα - De sollertia animalium)

"Both land and sea creatures show great ingenuity and adaptability."

Plutarch delves into the intelligence of land and sea animals, noting their exceptional cleverness within their respective habitats. He emphasizes the adaptability and intelligence of various species, recognizing the unique abilities of both terrestrial and marine creatures. This perspective underscores the diverse expressions of intelligence found throughout the natural world.

 

That Brute Animals Make Use of Reason (Περὶ τοῦ τὰ ἄλογα λόγῳ χρῆσθαι - Bruta animalia ratione uti)

"Animals, though lacking human speech, demonstrate reasoning and emotions."

The author argues that animals possess a form of rationality and should be treated with consideration and respect. He advocates for a more respectful and ethical treatment of animals, recognizing their capacity for rationality and emotional experience. This perspective calls for humane behavior towards all living creatures.

 

On Eating Meat (Περὶ σαρκοφαγίας - De esu carnium)

"For my part, I wonder what sort of feeling, mind, or reason they had, who first set about eating the flesh of dead animals."

The philosopher questions the ethics of consuming meat, considering the moral implications and the impact on one's character. He challenges the practice of meat consumption from a moral standpoint, questioning its necessity and ethical implications. Besides, the writer suggests that abstaining from meat could lead to a more compassionate and virtuous life.

 

On the Generation of the Soul in the Timaeus (Περὶ τῆς ἐν Τιμαίῳ ψυχογονίας - De animae procreatione in Timaeo)

"The soul, being divine and immortal, is the source of life and reason."

In this work, Plutarch analyzes Plato's dialogue Timaeus, exploring the creation and nature of the soul. He delves into the philosophical concepts presented in Timaeus, contemplating the origins and characteristics of the soul. Moreover, the author emphasizes the soul's divine nature and its role in providing life and rationality to beings.

 

Summary of the Generation of the Soul in the Timaeus (Ἐπιτομή τοῦ Περὶ τῆς ἐν τῷ Τιμαίῳ ψυχογονίας - Compendium libri de animae procreatione in Timaeo)

"The creation of the soul is a divine act, reflecting the harmony and order of the universe."

This work provides a concise summary of Plutarch's interpretation of the soul's creation as described in Plato's Timaeus. He offers a succinct overview of the soul's divine origins and its connection to the greater cosmos. Furthermore, the philosopher emphasizes the harmonious and orderly nature of the soul's creation, aligning with the broader philosophical themes of Plato's work.

 

Conclusion

 

Plutarch’s Moralia offers a timeless guide to ethical living, emphasizing the cultivation of virtue, the importance of education, and the value of genuine friendships. His works delve into managing emotions, dealing with adversity, and achieving inner peace, providing practical wisdom and profound insights into the human condition.

Through consistent practice and habituation, virtues are cultivated, shaping one’s character over time. Education is highlighted as crucial in forming moral and intellectual virtues from a young age. Furthermore, the distinction between true friends and flatterers underscores the importance of sincerity in relationships.

The philosopher also addresses various societal and ethical issues, advocating for a balanced approach to life. His philosophy remains enduringly relevant, offering valuable guidance for navigating the complexities of human existence and achieving personal and social well-being. By engaging with Plutarch's Moralia, individuals can gain timeless wisdom for leading a virtuous and fulfilling life.

References

1. Plutarch, Moralia, translated by Frank C. Babbitt, Harvard University Press, 1927.

2. Plutarch, Moralia, translated by Robin Waterfield, Oxford University Press, 2005.

3. Plutarch, Plutarch’s Moralia: Volume I, translated by W.C. Helmbold, Loeb Classical Library, 1962.

4. Plutarch’s Lives: Parallel Lives (The Complete Works), translated by Bernadotte Perrin, Harvard University Press, 1914.

5. Plutarch's Moralia: An Introduction by David Konstan, Oxford University Press, 2009.

6. Fowler, H.W. (Ed.), The Moralia of Plutarch, Oxford University Press, 2015.

7. Taylor, C. C. W., Plutarch and the Moral Life, Cambridge University Press, 1999.

8. De Lacy, P., Plutarch’s Moralia (The Ancient World), Routledge, 2014.