The eternal echo of the Golden Age: From the Kyrgyz epic of Manas to the classical myth

The concept of the Golden Age, a time of unparalleled peace, prosperity, and justice, is a recurring motif in the mythologies of various cultures. It represents an era in which humanity lived in harmony with nature, unburdened by toil, suffering, or social strife. This vision is not confined to a single tradition but is found across civilizations, from the Kyrgyz epic of Manas to the foundational texts of Greco-Roman antiquity. Through these works, we glimpse the human longing for an idyllic past and the persistent hope that such a time might one day return.

The Epic of Manas is one of the longest and most significant oral traditions of the Kyrgyz people. In its verses, the legendary land of Yenisei is depicted as a paradisiac homeland, an embodiment of abundance and fairness: "If we listen to the wise, if we inquire from the old, we hear that in the days long past, in regions lying north and west, there was a place called Yenisei. This land was marvelously wide, its rivers lined by woods and groves, its pastures verdant, meadows lush. All crops yielded abundant grain, with little plowing harvest rich: the granaries full to the brim. The people wandered here and there, they settled down, found their abode; rich and poor, without distinction, had food enough to eat their fill." (135-147). This passage evokes a world where natural abundance eliminates the need for labor, mirroring classical Golden Age myths. The mention of rich and poor living without distinction could suggest an egalitarian society, untouched by greed or social divisions. Such imagery would align with ancient visions of a time when justice was something inherent.

In fact, Hesiod’s Works and Days (8th century BCE) is among the earliest Western sources to articulate the idea of a lost Golden Age. He describes an original race of humans living under the rule of Cronos, free from suffering and hardship (109-126): "First of all the deathless gods who dwell on Olympus made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the time of Cronos when he was reigning in heaven. And they lived like gods without sorrow of heart, remote and free from toil and grief: miserable age rested not on them; but with legs and arms never failing they made merry with feasting beyond the reach of all evils. When they died, it was as though they were overcome with sleep, and they had all good things; for the fruitful earth unforced bare them fruit abundantly and without stint. They dwelt in ease and peace upon their lands with many good things, rich in flocks and loved by the blessed gods. But after the earth had covered this generation—they are called pure spirits dwelling on the earth, and are kindly, delivering from harm, and guardians of mortal men; for they roam everywhere over the earth, clothed in mist and keep watch on judgements and cruel deeds, givers of wealth”. This passage bears a striking resemblance to the Manas description of Yenisei. Both accounts emphasise the spontaneous generosity of nature, which sustains humanity without the need for labor. Moreover, the absence of suffering and the peaceful transition from life to death reinforce the idea that the Golden Age was not just a time of material prosperity but also of existential serenity. Yet, Hesiod’s myth introduces a crucial difference: the Golden Age does not last. It is followed by the progressively inferior ages of Silver, Bronze, and finally Iron, marking a decline into corruption, suffering, and strife. This framework presents history as a process of degeneration, a stark contrast to modern notions of progress. It suggests that moral and social decay are inevitable consequences of time, leaving humanity forever yearning for a lost paradise.

Besides, Ovid’s Metamorphoses refines Hesiod’s vision by adding a legal and moral dimension to the Golden Age: "First was the Golden Age. Then rectitude spontaneous in the heart prevailed, and faith. Avengers were not seen, for laws unframed were all unknown and needless. Punishment and fear of penalties existed not. No harsh decrees were fixed on brazen plates. No suppliant multitude the countenance of Justice feared, averting, for they dwelt without a judge in peace. Descended not the steeps, shorn from its height, the lofty pine, cleaving the trackless waves of alien shores, nor distant realms were known to wandering men. The towns were not entrenched for time of war; they had no brazen trumpets, straight, nor horns of curving brass, nor helmets, shields nor swords. There was no thought of martial pomp —secure a happy multitude enjoyed repose” (I, 89-105). According to these lines,  humanity lived virtuously without the need for laws, judges, or punishments, as moral integrity was innate. War and violence were nonexistent—there were no weapons, fortresses, or military ambitions. People did not explore foreign lands or exploit nature, suggesting a self-sufficient and content society. Ovid portrays this era as a utopian contrast to later ages marked by corruption and conflict, criticising human degeneration over time and highlighting the loss of innocence and the rise of greed and warfare. His nostalgic tone reflects the classical ideal of a lost paradise, echoing earlier poets like Hesiod.

However, unlike Hesiod and Ovid, who portray the Golden Age as an irretrievable past, Virgil in his Eclogue IV  envisions the birth of a miraculous child who will bring about the return of Saturn’s reign and the renewal of a utopian world, a sort of New Era of Peace: “Now the last age of the Cumaean prophecy begins: the great roll-call of the centuries is born anew: now Virgin Justice returns, and Saturn’s reign: now a new race descends from the heavens above. Only favour the child who’s born, pure Lucina, under whom the first race of iron shall end, and a golden race rise up throughout the world: now your Apollo reigns" (4-10). This prophecy was interpreted in later Christian tradition as foretelling the coming of Christ: “He will take on divine life, and he will see gods mingled with heroes, and be seen by them, and rule a peaceful world with his father’s powers. And for you, boy, the uncultivated earth will pour out her first little gifts, straggling ivy and cyclamen everywhere and the bean flower with the smiling acanthus. The goats will come home themselves, their udders swollen with milk, and the cattle will have no fear of fierce lions: Your cradle itself will pour out delightful flowers: And the snakes will die, and deceitful poisonous herbs will wither: Assyrian spice plants will spring up everywhere” (15-25). Moreover, Virgil’s prediction would seem to align with eschatological themes found in certain religious traditions, such as Isaiah’s vision of a Messianic Era: "Then the wolf will live alongside the lamb, and the leopard will lie down with the kid; the calf and the young lion will browse together, with a little child to guide them. The cow and the bear will graze side by side; their young will lie down together, and the lion will eat hay like the ox. The infant will play by the cobra’s den, and the young child will lay his hand on the viper’s nest" (Is 11, 6-8). Here, the Golden Age is not a distant memory but a promise of redemption, a restoration of harmony where even natural predators coexist peacefully, offering hope for the future.

Therefore, across cultures and centuries, the myth of the Golden Age has served as both a lament for a lost heaven and an aspiration for a better world. The Manas epic’s depiction of Yenisei, the classical traditions of Hesiod, Ovid, and Virgil, and religious prophecies all share a vision of a time characterised by a marvellous bucolic atmosphere, free from suffering, inequality, and strife. Whether viewed as an actual historical memory, a moral allegory, or a future prophecy, the Golden Age remains one of humanity’s most persistent and powerful myths. As these texts suggest, the Golden Age may not be confined to a single place or time but exists in the collective consciousness as an eternal ideal—one that continues to shape our hopes and dreams for a New World, ushering in a New Era of Peace, Love, Justice, and Righteousness.

 

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References

REICHL, KARL. "Oral Epics into the Twenty-First Century: The Case of the Kyrgyz Epic Manas." The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 129, no. 513, July 2016, pp. 327. DOI: 10.5406/jamerfolk.129.513.0327.

HESIOD. The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Works and Days. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1914.

 OVID. Metamorphoses. Translated by Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co., 1922.

 VIRGIL. The Eclogues and Georgics, translation into English prose by A. S. Kline.

 NCB.

The Golden Age Reborn: Virgil's Fourth Eclogue and the Prophecy of a Divine Child

 

Introduction

Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue has long captivated scholars and theologians with its prophetic tone and evocative imagery. Composed in 40 BCE, the poem speaks of a New Golden Age and the birth of a child who will bring renewal and justice to the world. But who is this child? Over the centuries, interpretations have ranged from political propaganda to divine prophecy, reflecting the diverse cultural and religious influences that shaped the Roman world.

This Eclogue holds a distinctive position in both literary and theological discourse. Written during a period of significant political transformation in Rome, this pastoral poem surpasses its immediate historical context to engage with themes of myth and prophecy. Notably, its cryptic allusions to a Divine Child and the advent of a renewed Golden Age have sparked interpretations that traverse cultural and temporal boundaries, connecting Roman antiquity with Christian theology. Consequently, this study will examine the poem’s historical backdrop, its reinterpretation by early Christian thinkers, and its enduring significance as a testament to cultural and religious integration.

The Eclogue’s Context and Themes

The Fourth Eclogue begins with a reference to the “last age” of the Sibylline prophecy, heralding the start of a new saeculum or cosmic cycle (“Ultima Cumaei venit iam carminis aetas”). Virgil intertwines mythological, philosophical, and astrological elements, drawing on Stoic ideas of eternal recurrence as well as the myths of Saturn’s reign and Astraea, the goddess of Justice. In particular, the poem’s repeated use of “redit” and “iam” emphasizes the immediacy of this transformative era.

In addition, the text reflects widespread fascination with the “Golden Age,” a concept first described by Hesiod and later elaborated by Greek and Roman authors such as Plato, Catullus, and Ovid. Virgil’s vision, however, is distinctive in its integration of Roman and prophetic traditions, potentially inspired by lost Sibylline or Orphic verses. Scholars have also noted similarities between Virgil’s lines and Hebrew prophecies from Isaiah and Jeremiah, which has sparked debates about the poet’s sources.

Christian Interpretations of Virgil’s Prophecy

Centuries later, Christian theologians identified Virgil’s mysterious child with Christ, interpreting the Eclogue as a prefiguration of the Messiah. Early Church Fathers, such as Lactantius and Augustine, emphasized the poem’s resonance with biblical prophecies. For example, Isaiah 7:14 predicts, “The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son, and will call him Immanuel,” while Isaiah 9:6 describes a child bringing eternal peace and justice.

Lactantius, a contemporary of Constantine, believed the Eclogue confirmed Christ’s millennial reign. He highlighted parallels between the Sibyl’s clarity and biblical prophecies, arguing that the former could aid in converting pagans. The Sibyl’s predictions, such as miraculous events and Christ’s dominion over evil, offered compelling testimony to non-Christian audiences more familiar with Greco-Roman traditions.

On the other hand, Augustine, in The City of God, recognized the Eclogue’s prophetic qualities but remained cautious about its source. While affirming that non-Christian oracles could reveal Christian truths, Augustine warned against attributing divine authority to the Sibyls. He argued that Virgil spoke poetically and obliquely, suggesting that the poet himself may not have fully understood the implications of his words.

The Role of the Sibyls in Christian and Pagan Thought

The connection between the Sibyls and Christian prophecy gained traction through figures like Constantine the Great. Constantine referenced the Eclogue in his discourse to the “Assembly of the Saints,” interpreting its imagery in explicitly Christian terms. He identified the virgin of the Eclogue with Mary and the child as Christ, offering allegorical readings of other symbols to align with Christian theology.

Despite these appropriations, early Latin Christian literature exhibits a complex relationship with the Sibyls. Writers such as Cyprian, Hilary, and Ambrose largely ignored the Sibyls, and Jerome’s Vulgate demonstrates little interest in their oracles. Some even viewed the Sibyls as representatives of pagan Rome, opposing their integration into Christian doctrine. Nevertheless, Constantine and Lactantius’s use of the Sibylline prophecies created a decisive link between Greco-Roman and Jewish-Christian traditions.

Interestingly, Constantine saw in the Eclogue a deeply Christian message. He interpreted the virgin ("virgo") as the Virgin Mary and the child as Christ, attributing symbolic significance to other elements of the poem. For example, the lions represented Christ’s persecutors, the serpent symbolized the devil, and the Golden Age embodied the Messianic kingdom. Constantine suggested that Virgil veiled these meanings to avoid charges of infidelity to Roman religion.

Lactantius, too, cited the Eclogue as evidence of Christ’s coming, using the Sibyl as a witness whose predictions paralleled biblical events. He emphasized the Sibyl’s ability to resonate with pagans unfamiliar with Jewish prophets, portraying her as an indispensable tool for spreading the Gospel. Her prophecies even included specifics such as the multiplication of loaves and fishes and Christ walking on water—events difficult to attribute to Old Testament sources, making her a uniquely credible figure for non-Christian audiences.

On the contrary, Augustine, while acknowledging the Sibyl’s references to Christ, remained cautious. He recognized the Eclogue’s poetic nature and its alignment with Christian truths but expressed skepticism about the Sibyl’s divine inspiration. He emphasized that she sang only what she had heard, without clarity on its origin, and warned against ascribing undue spiritual authority to her. Nevertheless, Augustine used the Eclogue to engage educated pagans, demonstrating connections between their cultural heritage and Christian theology.

Cultural and Religious Convergence in Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue

Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue exemplifies the blending of cultural and religious traditions in the Roman world. Its themes resonate with Roman, Greek, and Hebrew influences, reflecting a society where Stoic philosophy, mythology, and prophecy came together. For Christian theologians, the Eclogue’s language of renewal and justice served as a powerful tool to bridge the gap between pagan and Christian audiences.

Moreover, by intertwining Greco-Roman symbolism with messianic themes, Virgil’s poem surpasses its historical context. Whether interpreted as a precursor to Christ or as a reflection of Roman ideals, the Fourth Eclogue continues to inspire readings that illuminate the intersections of faith, culture, and literature.

Conclusion

The enduring legacy of Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue lies in its capacity to speak across cultures and eras. A product of the Roman world, it embodies the universal yearning for renewal, justice, and divine presence. Its adoption by Christian thinkers illustrates how art and literature can transcend their origins, inviting reinterpretation in new religious and philosophical frameworks. Ultimately, the Fourth Eclogue stands as a testament to the power of poetry to unite disparate traditions, offering a vision of hope that continues to resonate.

References

1. Hᴀɪɴᴇs, R. Who Is The Puer in Vergil's Fourth Eclogue?, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

2. J. Mᴀʏᴏʀ, W. Wᴀʀᴅᴇ Fᴏᴡʟᴇʀ and R.S. Cᴏɴᴡᴀʏ, Vergil's Messianic Eclogue, London: John Murray, 1907.

3. Hᴀᴅᴀs, A. Christians, Sibyls, and Eclogue 4, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.

4. Wɪʟʟɪᴀᴍs, R. Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue: A Literary Analysis, Oxford University Press, 2007.

Visions of the Golden Age: Idealism and Utopia in Classical Thought

The concept of the Golden Age is a recurring and powerful theme in classical literature, symbolizing an idealized period of peace, prosperity, and harmony. Across the works of Hesiod, Plato, Virgil, Seneca, Horace, and Ovid, the Golden Age is depicted as a time when humans lived in perfect harmony with nature and the divine, free from suffering, labor, and moral decay. Each author, however, presents this ideal in their own unique way, reflecting their individual philosophical, cultural, and historical contexts. Whether as a lost past, an unattainable utopia, or a hopeful vision for the future, the Golden Age continues to serve as a touchstone for exploring human potential, virtue, and the longing for a more perfect world.

Hesiod - Works and Days

In Works and Days, Hesiod introduces the myth of the Golden Age as the first and most perfect of the five ages of humans. During this time, these used to live in harmony with the gods, without the need for labor or suffering. Everything was abundant, and there was no pain or old age. This prosperous Era represents an ideal of primordial perfection and happiness.

 

Plato - Cratylus and Laws

Plato mentions the Golden Age in Cratylus and Laws. In Cratylus, he describes a time when Cronus ruled, and humans lived in peace and happiness under the guidance of the gods. In Laws, the author depicts an ideal society that seeks to replicate the virtues of the Golden Age. He envisions a community governed by virtue and wisdom, striving to emulate the perfection and harmony of the Golden Age.

 

Virgil - Fourth Eclogue

In the Fourth Eclogue, Virgil prophesies the advent of a new Golden Age with the birth of a divine child. This child will bring an era of peace and abundance, restoring lost harmony. The poem has been interpreted as a prediction of the Augustan era and as an allusion to the birth of Christ. The author uses the image of this peaceful time to express hope for a better future and to celebrate the promise of a new era of prosperity.

 

Seneca - Epistle 90

Seneca reflects on the Golden Age in his works and emphasizes the importance of virtue and wisdom in approximating that perfection. In his Epistle 90, Seneca examines the concept of this marvellous time as an era of simplicity and purity, where humans lived according to nature, free from the complications and luxuries of contemporary life. He underscores the necessity of living simply and virtuously to regain balance with nature.

 

Horace - Epode 16 ("Islands of the Blest")

Horace, in his Epode 16 idealizes the Golden Age as a time of abundance and simplicity, where humans lived in harmony with nature. This ideal contrasts with the corruption and complications of the present. He describes “the Islands of the Blest”, a utopian place where peace and prosperity reign, as a refuge from greed and war.

 

Ovid - Metamorphoses

Ovid, in Metamorphoses, narrates the Golden Age as the first of the four ages of the world. During this time, justice and peace prevailed, and the earth produced fruits spontaneously without the need for labor. Humans used to live in harmony with nature, without the need for laws or institutions. Ovid's Golden Age represents an ideal time of natural harmony and abundance, contrasting with the subsequent ages characterized by progressive moral and physical degeneration.

 

In summary, the Golden Age is a recurring theme in classical literature that represents an ideal epoch of peace, abundance, and harmony. Each author has given their interpretation of this myth, reflecting their values and historical context. These visions share a common ideal of perfection but vary in details and moral and philosophical applications.

 

References

1. Hardie, P. R. The Epic Successors of Virgil: A Study of the Latin Tradition from the First to the Fifth Century A.D. Oxford University Press, 1993.

2. Fowler, D. P. The Cambridge Companion to Ovid. Cambridge University Press, 2002.

3. Gildenhard, I., & Zissos, A. Latin Literature: A History. Oxford University Press, 2017.

4. Morrison, J. Hesiod: Theogony, Works and Days. Oxford University Press, 2008.

5. Vlastos, G. Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cambridge University Press, 1991.

6. Tarrant, H. Seneca: Letters from a Stoic. Oxford University Press, 2004.

7. Armstrong, D. Plato and the Foundations of Metaphysics. Oxford University Press, 2004.

8. Perry, B. (Ed.). The Golden Age of Greece: A Study of Greek Culture and Civilization. Oxford University Press, 2010.

9. Virgil. The Aeneid. Translated by David West, Penguin Classics, 2003.

10. Horace. The Odes of Horace. Translated by A.D. Hoare, Oxford University Press, 2011.